New Indian-Chennai News + more

Vaishnavism in Tamil Nadu is documented in ancient Tamil Sangam literature dating back to the 5th century BCE. Maha Vishnu, also known as Perumal, is notably the most frequently mentioned deity in Sangam Literature.^[1] Some of the earliest known mentions of Perumal, and the Tamil devotional poems ascribed to him, are found in Paripāṭal – the Sangam era poetic anthology.^[2][3] He is a popular Hindu deity, particularly among Tamils in Tamil Nadu and the Tamil diaspora, as well as in Vaishnava temples.^[4] One of the richest and largest Hindu temples complexes is dedicated to Perumal in South India. ^{[where? citation needed]}

The Padmanabhaswamy Temple, located in Thiruvananthapuram, is considered one of the wealthiest temples in the world. It is dedicated to a form of Lord Vishnu known as Padmanabhaswamy Perumal.^[5] Several extant Hindu texts including the Vishnu Purana,^[6] Brahma Purana,^[7] Matsya Purana,^[8] Varaha Purana,^[8] Skanda Purana,^[7] Padma Purana,^[7] Vayu Purana and Bhagavata Purana mention the Padmanabhaswamy Temple.^[7] In addition, the temple has several references in Sangam period literature.^[9] Several historians and scholars believe that the name "The Golden Temple" attributed to the temple might reflect its immense wealth during the early Sangam period.^[10][11][9] Many extant pieces of Sangam Tamil literature and poetry as well as later works of the 9th century of Tamil poet–such as saint Nammalwar refer to the temple and the city as having walls of pure gold.^[12] Both the temple and the entire city are often eulogised as being made of gold, and the temple as heaven.^[12][13] The temple is one of the 108 principal Divya Desams ("Holy Abodes") in Vaishnavism according to existing Tamil hymns from the fifth and eighth centuries C.E and is glorified in the Divya Prabandha.

The Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Perumal Temple, is also dedicated to a form of Maha Vishnu. It is considered to be the largest religious complex in the world.^[14]: 456 This temple is considered the foremost amongst the 108 principal Divya Desams in Vaishnavism according to existing Tamil hymns from the fifth and eighth century C.E and is glorified in the Divya Prabandha and sung by all the 12 Alvars. The temple is mentioned in Tamil literature of the Sangam era (6th century BCE to the 2nd century CE^[15]), including in the epic Silapadikaram (book 11, lines 35–40):^[16]

The temple was initially constructed by the Chola ruler, Dharmavarma. The Kaveri river flood destroyed the temple vimanam, and later, the early Chola ruler Killivalavan rebuilt the temple complex in the form that is present today. Beyond ancient textual history, archaeological evidence such as inscriptions refer to this temple. These stone inscriptions are from the late 1st millennium CE.^[17] The inscriptions in the temple belong to the Chola, Pandya, Hoysala and Vijayanagara dynasties who ruled over the region. These inscriptions range between the 9th and 16th centuries.^[18]

During the period of invasion and plunder by the Alauddin Khilji's Muslim general Malik Kafur and his Delhi Sultanate forces in 1311, the Arabic texts of the period state that he raided a "golden temple" on river "Kanobari" (Kaveri), destroyed the temple and took the plunder with the golden icon of the deity to Delhi. According to Steven P. Hopkins, this is believed to be the Ranganathaswamy Temple.^[19]

Sri Venkateswara Swamy Temple in Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh is the most visited temple dedicated to Perumal in India.^[20]

Other significant institutions include Kanchipuram's Varadaraja Perumal temple, and Sri Vidhya Rajagopalaswamy Perumal Temple, Mannargudi.The temple is called Dakshina Dvaraka (Southern Dvaraka) along with Guruvayoor by Hindus.^[21][22] The deity Perumal is identified with Mayon, literally meaning, "the dark-complexioned one", who is first referenced in the texts Purananuru and Pattupattu. Regarded to be the Tamil equivalent of Krishna, poetry from this period compares his dark skin to the ocean.^[23] Originally a folk deity, he was syncretised with Krishna and Vishnu, gaining popularity in the Sri Vaishnava tradition.^[24] His consort is Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune, beauty, and prosperity, appearing in even the earliest strata of Tamil poetry.^[25]

Mayon is indicated to be the deity associated with the mullai tiṇai (pastoral landscape) in the Tolkappiyam.^[26][27] He is regarded to be the only deity who enjoyed the status of Paramporul (achieving oneness with Paramatma) during the Sangam age. He is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in Sangam literature.^[1]

Portrait of Mahalakshmi in Brihadisvara Temple.

Lakshmi is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism. She is the goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity,^[28] and associated with Maya ("Illusion"). Lakshmi is venerated as the prosperity aspect of the Mother goddess.^[29][30] Lakshmi is both the consort and the divine energy (shakti) of the Hindu god Vishnu, the Supreme Being of Vaishnavism; she is also the Supreme Goddess in the sect and assists Vishnu to create, protect, and transform the universe.^[30][31][32] She is an especially prominent figure in Sri Vaishnavism, in which devotion to Lakshmi is deemed to be crucial to reach Vishnu.^[33]

Mahalakshmi is often called Thayar in Tamil which literarily translates to (Mother of the world).^[34] Devi Lakshmi is mentioned in several places of the Sangam Literature, Mahalakshmi is often portrayed as the Wife of Maha Vishnu and stays at the chest of Vishnu.

Srivilliputhur Andal temple is dedicated to Lakshmi and Vishnu where Lakshmi as Andal is more prominent than Vishnu.

She is worshipped by women in ancient Tamilakam for the return of the warriors (their husbands) with soul in their body.^[35][36] Maha Lakshmi has mentions in Sangam texts. Mahalakshmi was also considered as kotravai in her other form to marry Vishnu in the avatar of Shiva.

Purananuru mentions Sita that avathara of (Mahalakshmi) was abducted by the demon king Ravana and she threw away her jewels as she was sad at leaving the deity Rama. Malaipaṭukaṭām mentions the goddess of wealth and fortune, Lakshmi in lines 463–464 and the "Goddess who sits enthroned on the chest of Vishnu".^[37] , Mullaippāṭṭu which mentions women praying to Maha Lakshmi for their husbands to live long and not to die in the war,^[35] Paripāṭal mentions Maha Lakshmi seated on the chest of Vishnu,^[38] Silapathikaram mentions Lakshmi several places. For example, She is the Devi mentioned as Thiru seated on the chest of Ranganatha sleeping in Srirangam,^[39] She is in the form of Sita with Rama and Radha - The lover of Krishna, She is considered as the goddess of fortune, wealth and happiness and have huge temples for her, Maturaikkāñci mentions that the city gates and house walls had symbols and portraits of Mahalakshmi, the goddess of wealth and Maha Vishnu's wife.,^[40] Manimekalai describes a function dedicated to Lord Indra where the tired and sleeping young boys and girls who earlier in the day had run around in their costumes of Hindu gods (Vishnu) and goddesses (Lakshmi);,^[41] It also mentions (A character in the epic) called Aputra who reaches Madurai. He sits with his begging bowl inside Madurai's Temple dedicated to Maha Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune.^[42] The worshippers of Lakshmi are kind and donate a large amount of food to the bowl of Aputra, which Aputra shares with the poor, the blind, the deaf, and other needy people. The text also mentions Kanyakumari as being a Hindu bathing pilgrimage site dedicated to Maha Lakshmi, The Akanāṉūṟu describes Rama at Dhanushkodi, sitting under a Banyan tree, involved in secret discussions about the war between him and Ravana who kidnapped Sita, while the birds are singing.^[43][42] Thirukural mentions Goddess Lakshmi in couplets 167, 408, 519, 565, 568, 616, and 617 hints, high existence of Sri Vaishnavism and Valluvar's beliefs on it.^[44] There are many other mentions of Maha Lakshmi in Sangam literature.

Thirvikrama Perumal Templewhich is mentioned in Agananuru, Purananuru, Natrinai, Kurunthogai and Divya Prabhandham.^[85]

Manimekalai written as the sequel to the Silappatikaram by the Buddhist poet Chithalai Chathanar, narrates the tale of Manimekalai, the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, and her journey to become a Buddhist Bhikkuni.

Certain verses from the epic Show Maha Vishnu as The Father of Brahma and Gave Vedas to the Entire Universe and is Considered as the Paramatma - The Supreme Deity of the World.

Example from The Canto XIII of Manimekalai

Aputra then meets and accuses the Brahmins of twisting the meaning of the Veda verses taught by Brahma born from the navel of Maha Vishnu who holds a golden disc as his weapon. Aputra reminds the Brahmins that the greatest Vedic teachers such as Vasishtha and Agastya were born of low birth.^[42]

This epic also makes several references to the Ramayana, such as a setu (bridge) being built by monkeys in canto 5, line 37 (however the location is Kanyakumari rather than Dhanushkodi). In another reference, in canto 17, lines 9 to 16, the epic talks about Rama being the incarnation of Trivikrama or Netiyon, and he built the setup with the help of monkeys who hurled huge rocks into the ocean to build the bridge. Further, canto 18, lines 19 to 26, refers to the illegitimate love of Indra for Ahalya the wife of Rishi Gautama(Pandian, 1931, p. 149)(Aiyangar, 1927, p. 28).^[86][87][88] The epic again mentions Rama as Vishnu, from the story Ramayana, It states that Rama built a link (bridge) to Sri Lanka, but a curse of an ascetic dissolved the bridge link.^[89]

The Silappatikaram (translated as The Tale of an anklet) written by a prince turned Jain monk Ilango Adigal, dated to the 2nd century AD or later. The epic narrates the tale of Kovalan, son of a wealthy merchant, his wife Kannagi, and his lover Madhavi, and has many references to the Ramayana story, Different avatars of Para Brahman and Temples of Maha Vishnu. It describes the fate of Poompuhar suffering the same agony as experienced by Ayodhya when Rama leaves for exile to the forest as instructed by his father (Dik****ar, 1939, p. 193). The Aycciyarkuravai section (canto 27), makes mention of the Lord who could measure the three worlds, going to the forest with his brother, waging a war against Lanka and destroying it with fire (Dik****ar, 1939, p. 237). This seems to imply that Rama is regarded as divinity, rather than a mere human. These references indicate that the author was well aware of the story of the Ramayana in the 2nd century AD.^[90]

It also mentions Srirangam Ranganathaswamy temple which was visited and built by many kings and praised by saints.Silapadikaram (book 11, lines 35–40):.^{[citation needed]} The temple was first built by the Chola ruler, Dharmavarma. The Kaveri river flood destroyed the temple, and later, the early Cholas King Killivalavan who found the vimana and the idol of Ranganathaswamy rebuilt the temple complex as is present today.

The Tamil epic has many references and allusions to the Sanskrit epics and puranic legends. For example, it describes the fate of Poompuhar suffering the same agony as experienced by Ayodhya when Rama leaves for exile to the forest as instructed by his father.^[90] The Aycciyarkuravai section (canto 27), makes mention of the Lord who could measure the three worlds, going to the forest with his brother, waging a war against Lanka and destroying it with fire.^[90]

According to D. Dennis Hudson – a World Religions and Tamil literature scholar, the Cilappatikaram is the earliest and first complete Tamil reference to Pillai (Nila, Nappinnai, Radha), who is described in the epic as the cowherd lover of Krishna.^[91] The epic includes abundant stories and allusions to Krishna and his stories, which are also found in ancient Sanskrit Puranas. In the canto where Kannaki is waiting for Kovalan to return after selling her anklet to a Madurai merchant, she is in a village with cowgirls.^[91] These cowherd girls enact a dance, where one plays Mayavan (Krishna), another girl plays Tammunon (Balarama), while a third plays Pinnai (Nappinnai). The dance begins with a song listing Krishna's heroic deeds and his fondness for Nappinnai, then they dance where sage Narada plays music. Such scenes where cowgirls imitate Krishna's life story are also found in Sanskrit poems of Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana, both generally dated to be older than Cilappatikaram.^[91] The Tamil epic calls portions of it as vāla caritai nāṭaṅkaḷ, which mirrors the phrase balacarita nataka – dramas about the story of the child Krishna" – in the more ancient Sanskrit kavyas.^[91]

The oldest direct reference to Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala in Tamil literature is from the Silappatikaram text. The Silappatikaram states the beauty of Maha Vishnu in Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala and Maha Vishnus greatness. The author Ilango Adigal Mentions Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala in the most Beautiful terms. A few verses from the Silappatikaram which mention Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala.

Silappatikaram, vēṉiṟ kātai:1-2

Translation neṭiyōṉ kuṉṟamum toṭiyōḷ pauvamum tamiḻ varampaṟutta taṇpuṉal nalnāṭṭu.[92][93]

Meaning Spring held sway over the fertile Tamil country, bounded in the north by the Viṣṇu’s hill, and in the south by the Kumari’s sea.[92][93]

Silappatikaram, Kāṭukāṇ kātai: 41–51

Translation vīṅkunī raruvi vēṅkaṭa meṉṉum ōṅkuyar malaiyat tucci mīmicai virikatir ñāyiṟun tiṅkaḷum viḷaṅki irumaruṅ kōṅkiya iṭainilait tāṉattu miṉṉukkōṭi yuṭuttu viḷaṅkuviṟ pūṇṭu naṉṉiṟa mēkam niṉṟatu pōlap pakaiyaṇaṅ kāḻiyum pālveṇ caṅkamum takaipeṟu tāmaraik kaiyi ṉēnti nalaṅkiḷar āram mārpiṟ pūṇṭu polampū vāṭaiyiṟ polintu tōṉṟiya ceṅkaṇ neṭiyōṉ niṉṟa vaṇṇamum.[94]

Meaning (I also came to see) the beauty of the red-eyed Lord, holding in His beautiful lotus-hands the discus which is death to His enemies, and also the milk-white conch; (to see Him) wearing a garland of tender flowers on His chest, and draped in golden flowers; and dwelling on the topmost crest of the tall and lofty hill named vēṅkaṭam.[94]

Here, Neṭiyōṉ kuṉṟam means “Vishnu's mountain” and toṭiyōḷ pauvam means "Kumari goddess sea". Netiyon is another name dedicated to Maha Vishnu in Ancient Tamilakam.^[95] ceṅkaṇ neṭiyōṉ means “Red-eyed Vishnu” and Vēṅkaṭam refers to Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala. Maha Vishnu is being referenced as the Red-eyed lord even in the sacred book Vishnu Sahasranama which is featured in the Anushasana Parva of Mahabharatha.^[96][97] Which shows that Ilango Adigal and Ancient Tamils were aware of the Vishnu Sahasranama which is much older than the Silappatikaram.^[96]